Using a mix of national and city-level data from the two countries, Howard traced the consequences of decades of housing system restructuring alongside broader political-economic shifts. She found that access to long-term, affordable housing has diminished significantly for many young adults, especially in major cities such as Amsterdam. Liberalisation of housing markets has led to an increase in high-cost private rentals—options that are increasingly dominated by affluent young adults. Meanwhile, social housing opportunities have declined, and homeownership remains out of reach for many in lower and middle-income brackets.

Personal choice or economic necessity?

As a result of these pressures, more young adults are continuing to live with their parents well into their late twenties and even early thirties. While this trend can be seen across the income spectrum, it is particularly pronounced among lower-income groups, for whom co-residence is more often a matter of economic necessity than personal choice.

This prolonged period of parental co-residence carries significant mental health implications. Howard identified a clear association between living at home and poorer mental health outcomes, particularly among older young adults, women, and those based in regional or rural areas. In some cases, the mental health gap between co-residing young people and their independently housed peers is as high as six points on a 100-point scale. These findings suggest that beyond affordability, housing conditions directly affect the well-being and life satisfaction of young adults.

Income- and class-based disparities

Importantly, Howard also highlights a growing polarisation in housing outcomes. Once largely affecting low-income groups, housing challenges are now spreading to middle-income earners as well, while high-income young adults remain relatively insulated. This stratification underscores the limits of framing housing inequality purely in generational terms. Instead, it points to a need for policies that are more attuned to income and class-based disparities.

Rather than accepting “Generation rent” as a monolithic or inevitable condition, Howard argues for a more nuanced understanding of the complex forces shaping young people’s housing lives. The interplay of tenure type, family background, geographical context, and national housing policies creates a diverse landscape of experiences—some marked by opportunity, others by constraint and exclusion.

Rethinking existing frameworks

The comparative approach between the Netherlands and Australia adds further perspective. Despite differences in welfare regimes and housing traditions, both countries have seen rising reliance on private rental housing, decreasing access to social housing, and delayed transitions to independent living. This convergence reveals how deeply entrenched market-driven housing systems are influencing young adults’ life courses, regardless of national context.

‘Policymakers should be rethinking existing frameworks for dealing with this situation,’ says Howard. ‘Instead of treating all young people as a uniform group, housing policy should become more context-sensitive and class-aware. And truly understanding young adults’ housing pathways requires looking beyond ownership rates or rental statistics -  we should also be taking into account how housing intersects with inequality, mental health and long-term life chances.’

Defence details

Amber Howard: Housing Inequality in Young Adulthood. Supervisors are Prof. R.Ronald and Prof. R.J. Bentley. The co-supervisor is Dr C. Hochstenbach.

Time and location

Thursday, 5 June, 11:00, Aula.